Vitalik Buterin: 60% chance that SNARKs, FHE, and iO could reduce computation overhead to under 10x Ethereum co-founder Vitalik Buterin believes there is approximately a 60% chance that SNARKs, fully homomorphic encryption (FHE), and indistinguishability obfuscation (iO) will ultimately be implemented with additional computation overhead of less than 10x compared to performing standard computations. He also estimates a 33% chance that all three technologies could approach near-negligible additional cost for large-scale real-world computational workloads. Buterin suggests that at least one of the three technologies—most likely SNARKs—could achieve overhead under 10x before the end of this decade. He notes that certain specially designed hash functions and some large language model (LLM) inference tasks have already begun approaching this performance threshold.